As with much of history, it’s the untold stories that are interesting and provide additional insight into specific points in our past.

The Gemini program of NASA was the two man capsule follow-on to Project Mercury (which launched the first American into space).

There were many differences between Project Mercury and the Gemini Project, not the least of which was the propellants used for the on-board engines. The Mercury capsule propulsion system used hydrogen peroxide forced across a metal screen into the engines producing steam which steered the capsule. The Gemini capsule used nitrogen tetra oxide and hydrazine that were each forced into the engine chamber. These two chemicals automatically ignite upon contact (hypergolic) producing the force for the steering and reentry engines of the spacecraft.

These two chemicals were stored in Teflon bladders which when pressurized with helium “squirted” the respective chemical into the engine chambers. In the early 1960s a lot about Teflon, as with the two chemical propellants, which was unknown and there were trials and errors.

During the checkout of Gemini 6 it was discovered that the check valves (which were to keep the chemical vapors from migrating back into the common helium supply) were sticking open. No one knew why and it was of such a magnitude that the subsequent launch of Gemini 6 was, scrubbed moving Gemini 7 into the next launch slot.

I was working as a chemical specialist in the NASA Propulsion System Office at Cape Canaveral and felt that the sticking check valves were being caused by something having to do with the chemical propellants. I suggested that a series of tests be conducted to find out if this was in fact the reason and if it were, to find a solution to the problem.

I conducted a series of tests at an unused launch complex with the assistance of Joe Fitzsimmons (a NASA summer aide). Helium was blown over individual canisters of nitrogen tetra oxide and hydrazine and allowed to mix in a column outside the block house in case of an explosion.

Sure enough a yellowish substance deposited onto the inner surfaces of the column. We had found the source of what was causing the check valves to stick. Now the question was how to get rid of it.

We found the solution – blow across the yellowish substance with dry helium or nitrogen and the substance “melted” away. With this information, we were able to fix the sticking valves of Gemini 6 allowing the subsequent launch of Gemini 6 and the “face-to-face” meeting of Gemini capsule 7 and 6.

As with much of history, it’s the untold stories that are interesting and provide additional insight into specific points in our past.

The Gemini program of NASA was the two man capsule follow-on to Project Mercury (which launched the first American into space).

There were many differences between Project Mercury and the Gemini Project, not the least of which was the propellants used for the on-board engines. The Mercury capsule propulsion system used hydrogen peroxide forced across a metal screen into the engines producing steam which steered the capsule. The Gemini capsule used nitrogen tetra oxide and hydrazine that were each forced into the engine chamber. These two chemicals automatically ignite upon contact (hypergolic) producing the force for the steering and reentry engines of the spacecraft.

These two chemicals were stored in Teflon bladders which when pressurized with helium “squirted” the respective chemical into the engine chambers. In the early 1960s a lot about Teflon, as with the two chemical propellants, which was unknown and there were trials and errors.

During the checkout of Gemini 6 it was discovered that the check valves (which were to keep the chemical vapors from migrating back into the common helium supply) were sticking open. No one knew why and it was of such a magnitude that the subsequent launch of Gemini 6 was, scrubbed moving Gemini 7 into the next launch slot.

I was working as a chemical specialist in the NASA Propulsion System Office at Cape Canaveral and felt that the sticking check valves were being caused by something having to do with the chemical propellants. I suggested that a series of tests be conducted to find out if this was in fact the reason and if it were, to find a solution to the problem.

I conducted a series of tests at an unused launch complex with the assistance of Joe Fitzsimmons (a NASA summer aide). Helium was blown over individual canisters of nitrogen tetra oxide and hydrazine and allowed to mix in a column outside the block house in case of an explosion.

Sure enough a yellowish substance deposited onto the inner surfaces of the column. We had found the source of what was causing the check valves to stick. Now the question was how to get rid of it.

We found the solution – blow across the yellowish substance with dry helium or nitrogen and the substance “melted” away. With this information, we were able to fix the sticking valves of Gemini 6 allowing the subsequent launch of Gemini 6 and the “face-to-face” meeting of Gemini capsule 7 and 6.

Look to the north Mid evening in October, if you are in the southern hemisphere or almost overhead if you are in the northern hemisphere and you will see the distinctive triangle formed by the 3 bright stars of Altair in Aquila "the Eagle", Deneb in the tail of Cygnus "the Swan" and Vega at the heart of "Lyra the harp".

The first thing that will leap out at you from this Asterism of the triangle (an asterism being a group of stars that make a shape but do not form a true constellation) will be Cygnus the Swan, looking at first glance like a cross. It measures an outstretched hand span on its long axis, held at arms length, and so is hard to miss, with Deneb at the bottom of the tail. One of the Jewels of Cygnus is arguably the most beautiful double star in the night sky at the head of the swan, or the bottom star of the Cross depending how you see it. It is the beautiful binary star Albiro, a lovely contrasting golden yellow & Sapphire blue pair that can be "Split" even with a small telescope.

The next star at the base of the Triangle is Vega in "Lyra the harp", Vega became well known from the Film "Contact" as the point of first contact with the aliens! What it does in fact hide is the delightful "Ring Nebula", which is best seen with a scope of 200mmm in mirror size or bigger. It can be found 1/2 way between the 2 stars of the Parallelogram in Lyra, furtherest away from Vega. This dusty smoke ring is the remnant of the dying star at its center.

Aquila the Eagle at the top of the Triangle is the brightest star in this constellation & the 13th brightest star in the sky at Magnitude .75 and only 5.3 light years away it is just down the celestial road.

There are many more delights to be discovered in and around these constellations.

The cosmology and cosmography of the ancient Vedas is awe inspiring to say the least. The more “modern” of the Vedic texts are known to originate from approximately 3000 B.C., thus being the oldest scientific and religious doctrines known to man. The descriptions of our solar system and what modern astronomy has discovered of the visible universe corresponds with the ancient Vedic knowledge, proving that man has had advanced knowledge of astronomy for thousands of years before our modern civilization began. This article describes the Vedic version of planetary systems from the topmost, eternal planets down through the temporary planetary systems within innumerable universes of this material world.

When saying “cosmic manifestation” we speak of two separate worlds, the spiritual and the material. The spiritual planetary systems are eternal, beyond the limits of the material universes, and belong to a “super dimensional” or “anti-material” dimension. These are beyond the limitations of material time and space and therefore beyond our vision, or powers of perception. In these planetary systems there is no occurrence of creation or dissolution, and these planets are unlimited, indestructible, and eternally existing. There are descriptions of these spiritual planets in the vedic literatures, but this article concentrates on those within the material universe.

The material planetary systems are created at some point in time and will be destroyed at another. They are bound by the influences of time and space. Both of these energies (spiritual and material) are of the same divine source called “brahmajyoti”, the spiritual light. About 1/4th of this brahmajyoti is covered by the “mahat-tattva”, the material energy, where are found innumerable material universes. The 3/4th portion is the eternal spiritual sky. In the spiritual world are two realms of existence, “Goloka-dhama” and “Hari-dhama”. The material world has one realm called “Devi-dhama”.

Goloka-dhama is the topmost planet and residence of the Supreme Godhead Sri Sri Radha-Krishna. Below this is Hari-dhama where the spiritual planets of the Vaikunthalokas are situated. Below the Vaikuntha planets is “Mahesh-dhama” (also called Sadasivaloka, or the abode of Lord Siva). This is the realm dividing the spiritual from the material universes. Below Mahesh-dhama is Devi-dhama, the realm of the material universe. It is said that the systems of yoga offer different destinations. Bhakti yoga directs one toward entering Hari-dhama or Goloka-dhama. Jnana yoga directs the aspirant toward entrance to Mahesh dhama, and karma yoga directs one to remain in Devi-dhama, experiencing repeated birth and death in the material worlds.

The Planetary Systems of Devi-Dhama

In the Bhagavad-Gita we find a statement that there are three divisions of material planets in our universe. They are “urdhva-loka” (highest), “madhya-loka” (middle), and “adho-loka” (lower). Above the urdhva-lokas are the coverings of the material universe beyond which lie the eternal realms of existence. Within these three spheres of existence are 14 main planetary systems with different standards of life and duration of existence. The residents of the upper three systems have almost no disease or aging of the body, and they have no sense of fear. As the planetary systems progress downward there is lesser duration of life and standard of living, as well as a greater manifestation of disease and anxiety.

The 14 planetary systems are named as follows, from highest to lowest:

1) Satya-loka

2) Tapa-loka

3) Jana-loka

4) Mahar-loka

5) Svar-loka

6) Bhuvar-loka

7) Bhur-loka

8) Atala-loka

9) Vitala-loka

10) Sutala-loka

11) Talatala-loka

12) Mahatala-loka

13) Rasatala-loka

14) Patala-loka

In one of the Vedic scriptures called the “Hari-vamsa” there is a description as follows: “Above the planetary systems where humans live is the sky. Above the sky is the orbiting sun, which is the entrance point of the heavenly planetary systems. This is the middle of the universe where begins the planets of those elevated by great austerities and penances. The planets above these, up to Satya-loka are the residences of those advanced in spiritual knowledge. All these planets are within the material world and under the control of Devi (Goddess Durga), and therefore called Devi-dhama.”

The term “amara” (deathless) is often used to describe the residents of the heavenly planets because their span of life is inconceivable to us, but although they live for millions of years by our calculation, none within the material worlds can live here eternally. In Bhagavad-Gita there is given a description for the life span of those living on Satyaloka. One day is equal to 4,300,000,000 solar years. On other heavenly planets the day is considered to equal six months of our time, and the night also equal to six months on earth. These souls live in their bodies for 10 million of their years.

Time duration such as day, night, months, and years are different in different planetary systems, and there are also different types of human beings, animals, trees, and vegetation. Some of the planets that are visible to us are considered heavenly planets with different timings. Jupiter, Venus, and the Moon are examples of planets where one day is equal to six months on earth. How can that be, one may ask, when we can see these planets orbiting the Sun?

One point of reference that may be difficult for some to understand is crucial to this realization. All planets have different dimensions surrounding them. The dimension of existence visible to our eyes gives us the impression that the other planets in our solar system are mostly devoid of life. In actuality astronomers have found proof of intelligent life on other planets, regardless of the fact that little is yet public knowledge. The purview discernable by our physical eyes, though, cannot enter into the heavenly spheres of these planets where devas, angels, and higher beings exist, nor even that of humans who enjoy an existence far superior to what is obtainable on our planet earth.

Just as on and surrounding earth there are realms of existence inhabited by ethereal beings invisible to our eyes, some highly advanced and others bound by unfortunate circumstances (such as ghosts), all planets have different spheres of existence. We can never gain knowledge of the multi-dimensional reality on earth with our physical eyes, so how could we possibly expect to enter into the higher realities of other planets with them?

There are also different types of oceans on different planets in the material world. “Siddhanta-siromani”, an ancient vedic astrological text describes them as being of seven varieties:

1) an ocean of salt water

2) an ocean of milk

3) an ocean of curd

4) an ocean of ghee (clarified butter)

5) an ocean of sugar cane juice

6) an ocean of liquor

7) an ocean of sweet water

Our minds may balk at such a conception of different types of oceans, but why should any of these be more fantastic than the ocean of salt water that we have here on earth?

There are also some eternal planets seemingly situated within this material universe, but they are always inaccessible for human beings. The text “Laghu-Bhagavatamrita” describes these eternal planets as follows: “Above Rudraloka, the planet of Lord Siva, is the planet called Vishnuloka. It is 400,000 miles in circumference, and inaccessible for any mortal living being. Above that Vishnuloka is a golden island called Maha-Vishnuloka in the ocean of salt. Brahma and other demigods sometimes go there to meet Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu lies there with Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune). East of here is the “ocean of milk” where within is the island of Svetadvipa, where Lord Vishnu also resides with Goddess Lakshmi. His transcendental island is 200,000 square miles and covered with desire trees for the pleasure of the Supreme Lord.”

This planet is called “Dhruvaloka” and we see it as the polestar. It is said to be 3,800,000 yojanas above the sun (one yojana is equal to 8 miles). Above Dhruvaloka by 10,000,000 yojanas is Maharloka. Above Maharloka by 20,000,000 yojanas is Janaloka, a further 80,000,000 yojanas lies Tapaloka, and above by 120,000,000 yojanas is Satyaloka. The Vaikuntha planets begin 26,200,000 yojanas beyond Satyaloka.

The scripture “Vishnu Purana” describes that the outer covering of the universe begins 260,000,000 yojanas above the sun. About 70,000 yojanas below the earth begin the seven lower planetary systems of Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. Below these planets 30,000 yojanas is the Garbhodaka Ocean where Sesa Naga lies. This ocean is 249,800,000 yojanas deep. This gives an approximate diameter of the universe as 500,000,000 yojanas or 4,000,000,000 miles. These distances are calculated according to the distances between the planetary “planes” of existence. Actual distances between planets may be more.

The higher planetary systems are the realms of devas, demigods, and angels. Bhuvarloka is the abode of ghostly spirits, and the lower planets are populated by those of demoniac consciousness as well as the snakes known as “Nagas”. Development of higher consciousness, which also includes advanced intellectuality, starts with human beings and further increases among the denizens of higher planetary systems. The earth is situated close to the middle of these planetary systems.

Descriptions of the Planetary Systems
Satyaloka

This is the abode of Lord Brahma, the progenitor of this material universe. Here there are airplanes controlled by mantra, not by any mechanical means. The residents have mind and intelligence, but no material gross bodies. They feel compassion for those suffering in the lower regions, but do not suffer fear, old age, or death. At the time of final dissolution of the material planets the residents here transform their subtle bodies into spiritual bodies and enter the eternal Vaikuntha planets. Great yogis finally reach this highest planet through the Milky Way, which is the “highway” to this most elevated planet where the duration of life is calculated as 15,480,000,000,000 years.

Tapaloka

This is the abode of the four Kumaras named Sanat, Sanaka, Sanandana, and Sanatana. In this world many great sages also reside due to their advancement through spiritual austerity. The enjoyment available to the residents is inconceivable to us as it is beyond anything of our experience. When there is annihilation of the material universe the residents here also transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual sky.

Janaloka

This planet, still above the heavenly realms, is another abode of great saints and sages. This planet is populated by mystics who move to higher planets, and eventually transform their subtle bodies to spiritual, when the fire of devastation consumes the material planets. These residents can move between any planets within the material universe as mystic “spacemen” at speeds unthinkable to us.

Maharloka

When fully purified from material desire and contamination through sacrifice, penance, and charity one can reach the heavenly planets, and if advancing further can pass through the higher orbits to reach Maharloka. The greatest of sages, such as Bhrigu Muni, live in this place. It is situated beyond the “Sisumara”, which is the pivotal point for the turning of the universe. Advanced yogis reach this planet and live here for 4,300,000,000 solar years. When the fire of devastation almost reaches this planet the residents transport themselves to Satyaloka where they live further before this highest of planets is destroyed. They then transform their subtle bodies to spiritual and enter the spiritual realms.

Dhruvaloka

In every material universe is one Vaikuntha planet with an ocean of milk where Lord Vishnu resides on an island called Svetadvipa. This planet is Dhruvaloka. Living here are completely pure personalities. In our universe this planet is seen as the polestar and is situated above the planets of the Seven Rishis. As it is a spiritual planet, it is eternal and therefore remains when all other planets within the material universes are destroyed. It is said that this planet is the pivot for all material stars’ and planets’ orbits. All planets travel at high speeds in orbit, including the sun, which travels 16,000 miles per second in its orbit around Dhruvaloka. The planets of the seven sages are stars just below this planet that also orbit Dhruvaloka. They are always concerned with the welfare of the living entities within this material world and send emissaries to bring spiritual knowledge at various times and circumstances.

Sanaiscara (Saturn)

Saturn is considered an inauspicious planet astrologically, as he gives painful lessons to us here on earth. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Jupiter and passes through one sign of the zodiac every 30 months.

Brihaspati (Jupiter)

Jupiter is considered a most auspicious heavenly planet and is generally considered favorable astrologically, depending on placement at the time of our births here on earth. It is a planet of devas, and situated 1,600,000 miles above Mars.

Angaraka (Mars)

Mars is considered to be a malefic planet, which creates lack of rainfall on earth and almost always is capable of creating unfavorable influences here. It is situated 1,600,000 miles above Mercury.

Buddha (Mercury)

Mercury is said to be the son of the moon and is 1,600,000 miles beyond the planet Venus. As does Venus, he sometimes moves behind the sun, sometimes in front, and sometimes along with it. Generally the influence of Mercury is said to be auspicious astrologically, except when not moving with the sun. At such times this planet causes great storms on earth.

Shukra (Venus)

Venus is considered a most auspicious and favorable planet, and is also of the heavenly planets. Venus is said to bring rainfall, another reason for it being considered auspicious to life on earth.

Chandraloka (Moon)

The Moon is one of the four most important residences of the demigods. Those who worship the demigods through sacrifice aimed at great material enjoyment are promoted to the Moon. Here the celestial, intoxicating beverage called “soma” is available. It is not possible to enter into or even see the actual heavenly dimensions of this planet with our present eyes. The Moon passes through the entire zodiac in approximately one month. He influences the growth of vegetation and therefore considered the life-giver for all living beings on earth.

Surya (Sun)

The Sun is the source of light and heat for our universe. Modern science considers many stars to also be suns, but in the vedic literature they are considered to be planets of varying material elements, but not the center, as is the Sun. Surya, the sun god, is considered an expansion of Narayana (a form of Lord Vishnu). He controls the seasons here on earth. It is situated between Bhuloka and Bhuvarloka, rotating through the time circle of the zodiac. Yogis practicing hatha or ashtanga yoga, or those performing agnihotra sacrifices, worship the sun for their benefit. The demigods residing on the sun planet have bodies made of fire, necessary for life here.

Rahu

Rahu is said to be an invisible planet, which is situated 80,000 miles below the sun. It causes solar and lunar eclipses, as Rahu, along with Ketu, are the north and south nodes of the moon respectively.

Siddhaloka, Caranaloka, & Vidyadharaloka

These planets are 80,000 miles below Rahu. The residents of these planets are born with natural mystic powers, including the ability to fly without mechanical means, even to other planets. They have all the mystic siddhis, and being materially perfect beings can control gravity, time, and space. Their arts, culture, and sciences are far superior to that knowledge possessed by we here in the earthly realm.

Yakshaloka & Rakshashaloka

Beneath these higher planetary systems, in the sky called “antariksha”, are the residences of the Yakshas, Rakshashas, Pisachas, ghosts, and other etheral beings. This realm extends as far as the wind blows and clouds float in the sky. Above this there is no air.

Bhu-mandala (Middle Earth)

The planetary systems of middle earth (Bhumandala or Bhuloka) are abodes of both standards of living such as we enjoy on our planet, as well as some heavenly abodes where living beings may “stop” on the way to, or from, births in the heavenly planetary systems. There are seven planetary systems, which are divided by seven oceans. The names of the planetary systems are Jambu, Plaksha, Salmali, Kusha, Krauncha, Shaka, and Pushkara. Each system is twice as large as the one preceding it, and each ocean between the systems are made respectively of salt water, sugarcane juice, liquor, ghee, milk, emulsified yogurt, and sweet water.
Bhumandala is shaped like a lotus flower and the seven planetary systems are in the whorl of the lotus. The radius of Bhumandala extends as far as the sunshine, and the limits of our vision here to see the stars and moon. As the sunshine reaches earth from a distance of 93,000,000 miles, this is the radius of the plane of Bhumandala.

Lower Planetary Systems

Below the earth are seven other systems called Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Talatala, Mahatala, Rasatala, and Patala. These lower planetary systems are the same size as the earth planet, and begin 560,000 miles below earth. Sunshine does not reach these planets and light comes from jewels on the hoods of serpents. These planets are populated by persons of great power and opulence, yet of demoniac consciousness, who have reached here through austerity aimed at material enjoyment without spiritual development. They do not become old and diseased and fear only the time factor, which ultimately must destroy their abodes. Therefore they are given the name of “bila-svarga”, or subterranean heavenly planets.

The residents here enjoy a standard of material comfort more opulent than even the higher planets due to their desires for high standards of sensual enjoyment, wealth, and influence. The residents are known as Daityas, Danavas, and Nagas and are all engaged in illusory material enjoyment with no thought of spiritual liberation. There are incredible feats of architecture in their cities bedecked with valuable jewels in houses, gardens, compounds, etc. All residents drink juices and bathe in herbal elixirs which free them from any anxiety or physical disease, as well as any sign of physical aging. The visual beauty of these artificial heavens surpasses that of the higher planets and this sensual atmosphere completely captures the mind, allowing no thoughts but those directed toward sensual pleasure and happiness. Since time is not divided into days and nights due to no sunshine reaching these planets, they have no fear produced by time. Only at the time of dissolution does anxiety and fear consume them.

Narakaloka, the Hellish Planetary Systems

Beneath the planet Patalaloka, and slightly above the water of the Garbhodaka ocean, are the Naralokas, or the hellish planetary systems. These planets are of different degrees of suffering for those who must endure life there. Here on earth we can see many hellish circumstances of suffering for people, but nothing like what is experienced on these planets. They are said to be a place of rectification for those who commit the most abominable actions while living as humans on the earthly plane. Although life here seems like it goes on for an eternity, in actual fact the duration of one’s “karmic sentence” here may be only seconds or moments. There are 28 different hellish planets described in the Vedic literatures.

These descriptions of the material creation, as well as the spiritual planets, may be found in several Vedic literatures to a far greater depth. I have out of necessity greatly abbreviated the information given here.

All of the planetary systems in the material world will in time be annihilated. This annihilation takes place in two ways. Partial annihilation occurs every 4,300,000,000 solar years, or at the end of each day on Satyaloka. This extends from the hellish planets through all lower planetary systems up to the heavenly planets. The highest planets are not annihilated at this time. The entire cosmic manifestation is wound up in the universal form of God every 8,600,000,000 x 30 x 12 x 100 solar years. The spiritual world, which is never annihilated, simply absorbs the material creation. It is described that before the destruction there is no rain for hundreds of years. Everything dries up and dies due to continuous sunshine. The sun becomes 12 times as powerful as was previously. Then there are horrendous rains that absorb everything into water.

The mortal bodies of living entities, including all vegetation, merge into the earth. The earth merges into its subtle sensation of fragrance. Fragrance merges into water, and water merges into its quality of taste. That taste merges into fire, which merges into form. Form merges into touch and touch into ether. Ether finally merges into the sensation of sound. The senses all merge into their origins, the presiding devas and demigods, then they merge into the controlling mind, which merges into ego in the mode of goodness. Sound becomes one with ego in the mode of ignorance, and ego (the first of all the physical elements), merges into the total nature. The total material nature dissolves into the modes (goodness, passion, and ignorance). These modes then merge into the unmanifest form of nature, and that unmanifest form merges into time. Time merges into the Supreme Godhead, present as Maha-Vishnu, the original creator of the cosmic manifestation. The origin of all life merges into God, the unborn Supreme Soul who remains one without a second, and from whom all creation and annihilation takes place. This annihilation of the material world is the exact reverse of the process of creation. Everything ultimately rests within the Supreme Absolute.

Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun and the fourth largest (by diameter). Neptune was first observed by Galle and d' Arrest on 1846 Sept 23 very near to the locations independently predicted by Adams and Le Verrier from calculations based on the observed positions of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. Neptune is smaller in diameter but larger in mass than Uranus. Neptune's blue color is largely the result of absorption of red light by methane in the atmosphere but here is some additional as-yet-unidentified chromophore which gives the clouds their rich blue tint. Neptune can be seen with binoculars (if you know exactly where to look) but a large telescope is needed to see anything other than a tiny disk. Neptune's composition is probably similar to Uranus': various "ices" and rock with about 15% hydrogen and a little helium. Neptune's rings have been given names: the outermost is Adams (which contains three prominent arcs now named Liberty, Equality and Fraternity), next is an unnamed ring co-orbital with Galatea, then Leverrier (whose outer extensions are called Lassell and Arago), and finally the faint but broad Galle.

Orbit

Orbiting so far from the sun, Neptune receives very little heat with the uppermost regions of the atmosphere at −218 °C (55 K). After the discovery of Uranus, it was noticed that its orbit was not as it should be in accordance with Newton's laws. Because Pluto's orbit is so eccentric, it sometimes crosses the orbit of Neptune making Neptune the most distant planet from the Sun for a few years. Despina is the third of Neptune's known satellites: orbit: 52,600 km from Neptune diameter: 148 km mass:. In 2003, there was a proposal to NASA's "Vision Missions Studies" to implement a "Neptune Orbiter with Probes" mission that does Cassini-level science without fission-based electric power or propulsion.

Moons

Neptune also has several tiny distant and unnamed moons which were discovered recently. Neptune's innermost four moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, and Galatea, orbit close enough to be within Neptune's rings.

Neptune's magnetic field is, like Uranus', oddly oriented and probably generated by motions of conductive material (probably water) in its middle layers. Neptune's atmosphere is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane that account for the planet's blue appearance. Neptune was discovered that very night, September 23, 1846, within 1° of where Le Verrier had predicted it to be, and about 10° from Adams' prediction. Neptune's blue color is much more vivid than that of Uranus, which has a similar amount of methane. Neptune's second known satellite (by order of distance), the irregular moon Nereid, has one of the most eccentric orbits of any satellite in the solar system. Neptune will return to the same location on its orbit as at its discovery in August 2011. Neptune's innermost four moons, Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, and Galatea, orbit close enough to be within Neptune's rings. Neptune's rings are believed to be relatively young and relatively short-lived.

Planets were assembled out of small "building bodies" called planetesimals, which themselves aggregated from the dust in the solar nebula. Planets with low eccentricities have more circular orbits, while planets with a high eccentricities have more elliptical orbits. Planets and satellites are "built-in", and the program comes with some 7500 asteroids and comets. Planets around M stars receive much less visible light but much more infrared light. Planets, as we noted, move relative to the stars, and they do so, generally, moving from west to east in the sky.

Jupiter

Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices. Jupiter is the most massive planet in our solar system and is 320 times heavier than the Earth. Jupiter and Saturn are believed to possess cores of rock and metal surrounded by mantles of metallic hydrogen. Jupiter is so big that all the other planets could fit inside it.

Extra solar

Extra solar planets are telling astronomers how planetary systems form and evolve. Since 1992, and the discovery of hundreds of extra solar planets, scientists are beginning to observe similar features across the galaxy. Several projects have also been proposed to create an array of space telescopes to search for extrasolar planets with masses comparable to the Earth. In 2003, The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets made a position statement on the definition of a planet that incorporated a working definition:[2]Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun)[20] that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). These two monographs, although concentrating on the possibilities of intelligent life, needed to make a strong statement regarding the probability of the existence of extrasolar planets. Schneider, used in the search for extrasolar worlds are astrometric detection , direct imaging , radial velocity, ground based photometry, and occultation. This method is used in order to determine reflected light from anextrasolar planet. As an extrasolar planet revolves about its star, it will pass between its star and the line of sight as seen from the Earth. Another issue that needs to be examined for future extrasolar planetary discoveries is the type of methodology and instrumentation that needs to be used.

Planets are found much more commonly around stars like our sun that are rich in iron and other metals, hinting that such elements played an important role in planet formation. Planets are much smaller with core temperatures and pressures too low for nuclear fusion to occur. Mars has some of the most highly varied and interesting terrain of any of the terrestrial planets, some of it quite spectacular: Olympus Mons: the largest mountain in the Solar System rising 24 km (78,000 ft.)

Planets were assembled out of small "building bodies" called planetesimals, which themselves aggregated from the dust in the solar nebula. Planets are found much more commonly around stars like our sun that are rich in iron and other metals, hinting that such elements played an important role in planet formation. Planets work best when created using panoramas, but for this second example we’ll use the following landscape photo of San Girgio Maggiore Island in Venice. Planets, as we noted, move relative to the stars, and they do so, generally, moving from west to east in the sky. Planets with the perfect blend of molecular constituents orbiting at just the right distance from the sun enjoy what astronomers call a "Goldilocks" orbit. All eight planets can be seen with a small telescope; or binoculars. Mars has some of the most highly varied and interesting terrain of any of the terrestrial planets, some of it quite spectacular: Olympus Mons: the largest mountain in the Solar System rising 24 km (78,000 ft.

Neptune

Neptune's largest satellite, Triton, is in a highly inclined retrograde orbit and is believed to have been captured by Neptune early in its history. Neptune was to be recorded several more times, without being recognized as a planet, over the following years. Neptune has a mass more than8000 times greater than that of Pluto, and, in fact, totally dominates Pluto's region of the Kuiper belt. Neptune did not follow the orbit computed, even after taking the gravitational attraction of all the other known planets into account. Neptune appears in the constellation Capricornus, and stages its best appearance in August.

Venus

Venus is an example of runaway greenhouse effect on a planetary scale. Venus is clearly not a black body and the greenhouse effect is important for raising its temperature. Venus, our planet's evil sister, has already been identified as unusable for life because of. Venus stretches us the most of the planets, simply because it is the closest on average. Venus' distance from the Sun is about 70% of the distance Sun-Earth. Venus, Mars, and Saturn will form the closest trio, drawing within a 5 degree circle (about the apparent size of your fist with arm extended) above Aldebaran by May 3rd.

Planets and satellites are "built-in", and the program comes with some 7500 asteroids and comets. Planets are much smaller with core temperatures and pressures too low for nuclear fusion to occur. Planets are found much more commonly around stars like our sun that are rich in iron and other metals, hinting that such elements played an important role in planet formation. The sun is the center of our solar system; the planets, their moons, the asteroids, comets, and other rocks and gas all orbit the sun. Temperatures on the Planets Generally, the farther from the Sun, the cooler the planet.

Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, has the most spectacular set of rings in the solar system. Saturn has been known since prehistoric times. Saturn is visibly flattened (oblate) when viewed through a small telescope; its equatorial and polar diameters vary by almost 10% (120,536 km vs. Saturn also exhibits long-lived ovals (red spot at center of image at right) and other features common on Jupiter. Saturn's rings remained unique in the known solar system until 1977 when very faint rings were discovered around Uranus (and shortly thereafter around Jupiter and Neptune). Saturn is the least dense of the planets; its specific gravity (0. Saturn is visibly flattened (oblate) when viewed through a small telescope; its equatorial and polar diameters vary by almost 10% (120,536 km vs.

Rings

Rings are 270,000 km in diameter, but only a few hundred meters thick. Early observations of Saturn were complicated by the fact that the Earth passes through the plane of Saturn's rings every few years as Saturn moves in its orbit. Saturn's rings are extraordinarily thin: though they're 250,000 km or more in diameter they're less than one kilometer thick. Two prominent rings (A and B) and one faint ring (C) can be seen from the Earth. The origin of the rings of Saturn (and the other jovian planets) is unknown. The current set of rings maybe only a few hundred million years old.

Satellites

The rings and the larger satellites are visible with a small astronomical telescope. There are satellites within the rings which result in the gaps that are present between some rings. Though they may have had rings since their formation, the ring systems are not stable and must be regenerated by ongoing processes, perhaps the breakup of larger satellites. Saturn has at least 35 naturally occurring satellites. All five, like the newly discovered four outer moons of Saturn, are irregular satellites.

Saturn's interior is hot (12000 K at the core) and Saturn radiates more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Saturn's rings, unlike the rings of the other planets, are very bright (albedo 0. Saturn is the most oblate (flattened) planet in our Solar System. Saturn's outermost ring, the F-ring, is a complex structure made up of several smaller rings along which "knots" are visible. Saturn also exhibits long-lived ovals (red spot at center of image at right) and other features common on Jupiter. Saturn's bright rings are made of ice chunks (and some rocks) that range in size from the size of a fingernail to the size of a car. Saturn is visible without using a telescope, but a low-power telescope is needed to see its rings. Saturn is the only planet in our Solar System that is less dense than water. Saturn's auroral displays are caused by an energetic wind from the Sun that sweeps over the planet, much like Earth's aurora, which is occasionally seen in the nighttime sky.

Some weeks ago I came across a story in which it was mentioned that a noted scientist had classified SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) as a religion. There was also a rebuttal by a SETI astronomer to the effect that SETI was indeed a serious scientific endeavor. Neither argument was convincing.

I asked ancient astronaut expert Morten St. George about this. Is SETI a religion? He did not respond with a direct yes or no. He merely spoke of a psychological concept known as the collective unconscious. I understood this to be some type of mental archetype that lies deep and hidden in the minds of humankind, causing people to make mistakes on purpose. According to Morten, a specific archetype is at play here and it can be described as follows: God created man in his own image, therefore humankind is the only intelligent life form in the universe.

Morten said that the collective unconscious affects the SETI astronomers just like the rest of humankind. The SETI astronomers consciously want to make contact with extraterrestrials but unconsciously, or subconsciously, they do not want to. The result is that the collective unconscious has led the conscious efforts of the SETI astronomers to perpetual failure:

He gave me a few examples:

1. SETI astronomers have looked closely at nearby stars for extraterrestrial intelligence. Beyond all doubt it has become obvious that intelligent life does not evolve on every planet. Why in the world should we believe we will find it on a nearby planet? The chances of that are so remote it is not worth of drop of effort. Yet enormous time and effort have been lost searching nearby stars, time and effort that could have been much better spent looking in places more likely to be productive. A classic example of the collective unconscious causing failure for SETI.

2. SETI astronomers have undertaken blanket surveys of the entire sky. Why would any rational scientist want to waste limited resources searching aloof sections of the sky with low star density when those resources could be better spent searching areas with high star density and correspondingly higher chances of finding an alien communication? Or why not search areas of the galaxy where dark clouds might have protected an evolving civilization from deadly cosmic rays, making those areas a more likely place for a civilization to have had the time to achieve technology? Another classic example of the collective unconscious contributing to SETI failure.

3. SETI astronomers tend to ignore all ancient astronaut and ufology claims. Perhaps they want to considered as respectful scientists by the world community? The fact of the matter is that, on a galactic timescale, it does not take very long to explore the galaxy. The arguments for the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence and equally the justification for SETI efforts imply that the galaxy is already fully explored. Even if there is enormous quackery in this area, every claim needs to be checked out. An alien visit at some point in the past is more likely than not, and it could provide clues on where to search. Wholly ignoring this area is still another example of the collective unconscious desiring failure.

4. SETI astronomers tend to assume that the extraterrestrials think like humans, employ human technology, and communicate at the wavelengths suggested by the collective unconscious. Logic dictates that if there is another technological civilization out there, it has to be far more advanced than us since humans have possessed technology not even for a split second on a galactic time scale. So why would an advanced civilization want to communicate at a frequency that has lots of galactic background noise rather than a frequency that has little or no static? Once again the collective unconscious leads to failure for SETI.

Sky-wide searches at ridiculous wavelengths will never produce results. Morten thinks the collective unconscious has incapacitated the SETI astronomers, leaving them wholly unable to ascertain genuinely good targets and then perform concentrated, multi-faceted, multi-bandwidth searches on those targets. Instead, they blindly turn their telescopes around and around, happily knowing that they will never pick up a signal. Thus, the argument that SETI is a religion is a strong one, and religion, not a lack of extraterrestrial intelligence, accounts for SETI's failure to date.

Morten has the following recommendations for SETI astronomers who find themselves able to break away from the impediments of the collective unconscious. Stop, think, and regroup. The objective is extraterrestrial intelligence and the only road to finding it is to make use of human intelligence. One must take the probabilities into account. The most likely scenario is as follows: at least one alien civilization is widely dispersed throughout the galaxy and that alien civilization a) possesses extremely advanced technology, b) knows that we are here, and c) is not sending us any messages.

What can SETI astronomers do in such circumstances? Recognize what they are up against and try to outsmart the aliens. Probe dark clouds along the galactic plane, search for energy trails deposited by their near speed-of-light spaceships, search for potential artificially-created energy sources and concentrate searches in those areas, read science fiction books for ideas on futuristic space communication technologies, try to detect and intercept communications that use those technologies. It is time to elevate the dignity of our species and demonstrate our ingenuity in a cat and mouse game.

Aiming a telescope at the night sky has been one of my hobbies for quite a few years. Ever since I was a kid I spent many evenings gazing up into the Milky Way and wondered how many? How far away and how big must some of those stars be? As I got older and my interest in astronomy persisted, I decided it was time I bought a telescope. I started shopping around and found not only are there many types, but of course different features and accessories. I had no idea there were so many choices.

If this is your first telescope, the choices can be overwhelming so I've included suggestions and some of the questions you may want to ask telescope dealers and yourself before you actually buy your first scope. If you already own a scope, these tips will still come in handy if you're thinking a buying a new one.

- First, think of the reasons you want a telescope. Are you part of a stargazing club or planning on joining one? Has it been a passion since childhood? Do you plan on giving it as a gift to a budding young astronomer? Maybe you want to catch a glimpse of the space station as it darts across the night sky! If you plan to get a lot of use from your telescope, the best bet is to buy a larger scope with more features. You'll want one that doesn't limit your ability to explore the heavens. The better the quality, the more you'll enjoy the experience and further your interest. If, on the other hand, you've just read the paper and found out there's going to be a lunar eclipse this weekend, a smaller scope with less features is the way to go. You won't want to lay out big bucks for a great telescope with all the bells and whistles for something you'll get only occasional use from.

Bend, Bounce Or Both?

- What kind of Telescope should you get? The 3 types are refractor, reflector and compound, or catadioptric.

A refractor telescope collects light at the top of a long, slender tube and bends or concentrates it to an eyepiece at the bottom. It's popular with observers whose main interest is the Moon and planets within our own solar system. They provide sharp, high-contrast views at higher magnifications and are less bothered by atmospheric disturbance and than the reflector or compound types. Because of this it makes an excellent choice for observation in a city setting.

The reflector telescope uses a concave mirror at the bottom of a tube, rather than a lens at the top, to gather and focus light. Newtonian reflectors, the most common design, reflect (bounce) the collected light to a smaller secondary mirror at the top end directing the focused light to an eyepiece on the side of the tube, making for a comfortable upright viewing position. These scopes are perfect for those living in an urban or country setting and who wish to explore deeper into the cosmos. They are usually larger and a little bulky in size making transport more difficult.

The third type, a catadioptric, employs a combination of lenses and mirrors to gather and focus light. Its design allows for a larger aperture mirror in a smaller space. Like the Newtonian, light is collected by a mirror in the bottom of the scope. Unlike the Newtonian, the tube is much shorter, making handling and transport easier. The light reflects off the back mirror to a secondary mirror near the top of the scope where it's concentrated once again and reflected to the eyepiece in the bottom of the tube. This design is also excellent for viewing objects beyond our neighbor planets.

Location, Location, Location

- It's true in real estate and it's true in astronomy. If you live in a city where there's well lit streets and neon signs flashing brightly at night, you may need to travel to areas away from the glow. It seriously hampers any attempt at stargazing. If you need to travel any distance to find a good location to practice your hobby, you'll want a telescope that's easy to set up and take down. Don't buy a scope that never comes out of the box because it's too much of a hassle to put together. A place in the suburbs or even the countryside is a much more inviting location. A quiet, peaceful setting with no streetlights, preferably with some elevation is perfect for viewing very faint objects in deep space. Buy a scope with a large objective lense (the larger the objective lens the more light gathering capability it has) and point it to almost any location in the Milky Way and you're sure to be thrilled by what you see.

Hobby Or Passion?

- Are you going out every weekend to observe stars and planets? Do you use star charts and plot locations of various constellations? Do you research deep space objects on the internet? Do you use a CCD (charged coupled device) Camera for astrophotography? If so, then you probably already have an impressive telescope and just want to upgrade and purchase a new scope or accessory. Again the objective lens of your new telescope is an important factor when deciding. You want to gather as much light as possible to provide lots of detail in your photos.

You may just want to take the your new scope on a camping trip with the family. In that case a smaller scope or even binoculars would be particularly well suited for that purpose. It's easy to pack, set up and take down, and very portable. Don't buy the biggest baddest telescope on the market, you'll never fit it in a backpack!

- Lastly, the price you're willing to pay for a new scope will ultimately determine the type of scope you buy as well as the size. You can spend a couple hundred dollars for a simple high quality scope if you're just starting out. Or you can spend thousands for a larger scope with more accessories than a New York model. Your answers to the questions above and your own good judgement will provide you with a firm platform to make a quality decision. If you're solidly entrenched in astronomy and the related fields, astrophotography, star charting etc. then you already have a good idea on the kind of scope you want. If this is your first telescope, I hope these suggestions and ideas have helped. Good luck and have fun stargazing!

Astronomy continues to be one of the more popular hobbies. One of the major reasons is because you can stargaze just about anywhere. Although country settings away from city lights are best, everyone can see the moon. And even though the closest star (after our sun), Alpha Centauri is over 4 light years away, can be seen easily with the naked eye.

While simple stargazing with the naked eye is great fun, using a telescope can be awe inspiring. The view of the heavens through even a small telescope is something that has to be experienced to be appreciated. Even though modern technology allows us to view the celestial realm with images on tv and through the internet, there is nothing quite like seeing it though a telescope.

Different Telescopes

There are basically three kinds of telescope. The refractor and reflector and catadioptric. The refractor telescope collects and bends light with a convex lense and eyepiece. This bending or refracting concentrates the light rays to a small focal point making things appear larger or brighter. The reflector telescope on the other hand, as its name suggests, reflects light from a convex mirror in the back of the telescope to another mirror in the front and finally to the eyepiece. The convex shape of the mirrors "scoop up" and concentrate the light to a focal point thereby magnifying an object. Caution: Objects in a telescope appear closer than they really are!

The third type, called Catadioptric, combines features from both reflecting and refracting telescopes.

Which one is best? For image quality and portability, my choice is the catadioptric. It's easily transported and has the best features of both the reflector and refractor telescopes. Because of the design, catadioptric telescopes are almost completely free of the coma found in reflectors and the chromatic aberration in refractors. Chromatic aberration is the distortion of color due to a lenses inability to bring various colors in the light into focus. Coma is the distortion of an object at the edge of your field of view.

Convenience is another factor to consider. If you have to transport your telescope as I do you'll appreciate the catadioptric's compact size, light weight and how easy it is to set up and take down.

Travel Through Time

We all know light travels at an unimaginable speed of 186,000 miles per second. Even our sun's light takes about 8 minutes to reach us once it's left the surface. Now think about our closest neighbor, Alpha Centauri. It's over 4 light years away so the light from its' surface began its' journey over 4 years ago. We are actually seeing it as it was more than 4 years in the past. In a very real sense we are looking back in time. Think back to what you were doing 4 years ago. Whatever it was, while you were doing it, light eminated from the surface of Alpha Centauri and came screaming along at 186,000 miles per second on the long journey toward earth, arriving here just a few minutes ago. Alpha Centauri is actually part of a star system. 3 separate stars, Alpha Centauri A and B form a binary while Alpha Centauri C is 13,000 Astronomical Units (AU) away. This is part of the reason it's easily seen with the naked eye, you are actually looking at 3 stars instead of 1.

Closer To Home

One need not look outside our own solar system to find amazing sites in the night sky. The moon may look smooth when seen with the naked eye but train a telescope on it and prepared to be wowed. The level of detail will depend on your telescope but the craters and jagged mountains are clearly visible. The best viewing, in my opinion is when the moon is in a crescent stage as the shadow created by the earth allows for much more detail to be seen. I saw the moon for the first time through a telescope years ago. I watched as it slowly drifted past my field of view and could almost feel its' movement. Of course I knew it moved along its' orbit around the earth but to actually see it moving was an incredible experience.

Saturn, probably the most fun to observe because of the rings, makes for spectacular stargazing. Depending on the time of year, the rings of Saturn are visible and to this observer, quite breathtaking. While I couldn't discern any colors or variations in the rings, they appear quite distinctly from the planet itself, something I'd seen only in books prior to that.

Stand on the shores of any ocean on earth and get a sense of the sheer enormity of it. Then realize that it's not even a drop in a bucket by comparison to the size of the sky it sits beneath. Looking up at the stars at night makes you realize just how massive everything really is. There is no number that can truly measure or even estimate its' size or dimensions. The only thing that can even remotely compare to the wonder of space is the imagination of those who view it.